Glossary
Definitions of selected terms
32P (Phosphorous-32)
32P (Phosphorous-32) is a radioactive isotope that is commonly deployed to label biological molecules. The marker is particularly helpful in the identification of malignant tumours because cancer cells tend to accumulate more phosphate than normal cells.
35S (35 Sulfur)
35S is a low energy beta emitter that is often used as a radioactive label for biological molecules. It can be detected using Geiger–Müller counter and liquid scintillation counting techniques.
5S ribosomal RNA
5S ribosomal RNA (5S rRNA) is an integral component of the large ribosomal subunit in all known organisms. It has approximately 120 nucleotide-long ribosomal RNA molecules. The term 5S refers to the molecule’s sedimentation velocity in an ultracentrifuge. The exact function of 5S rRNA is unclear, but it is believed to enhance protein synthesis by stabilising the ribosome scaffold.
8M urea
8M urea is an organic compound which is used extensively in proteomics and molecular biology. It is particularly helpful in making fixed brain tissue transparent to visible light while retaining fluorescent signals from labelled cells. The adoption of 8M urea for this purpose allowed for much deeper imaging of neuronal processes than with previous methods which involved the use of conventional one photon or two photon confocal microscopes.
Acinetobacter baumannii
Also known ‘Iraquibacter’, this is a type of bacteria that commonly causes ventilator-associated pneumonia and blood-stream infection in critically ill patients with compromised immune systems.
Acrylamide gel
A gel that contains an acrylamide solution. Commonly used in electrophoresis, the gel provides a mesh-like matrix that makes it possible to accurately separate proteins based on their length in an easy and inexpensive process.
Actinomyces bovis
A species of Gram-positive rod-shaped bacteria that causes Lumpy jaw in cattle.
Active immunity
This is a type of immunity that is acquired so as to built up resistance to disease. Such immunity can be acquired either by having the disease or through vaccination against it.
Active site
This is a part of a protein that must be maintained in a particular shape if the protein is to function.
Adjuvant
A pharmacological or immunological agent that is added to enhanced the effect of other agents. In the case of vaccines an adjuvant maybe added to boost the immune response to produce more antibodies and longer-lasting immunity, thereby reducing the dose of antigen required.
Agar diffusion test
A method used to test the effectiveness of antibiotics for specific bacteria. It involves the application of antibiotic solutions of different concentrations to cups, wells or paper discs, placed on the surface of agar plates seeded with a test bacterial strain.
Agglutinin
This is an antibody that can recognise and bind to an immunological determinant on the surface of bacteria or other cells which causes them to clump (agglutination).
Allele
One of two or more versions of a gene. Most organisms inherit two alleles for each gene, one from each parent. Where the two alleles inherited are the same, the term homozygous is used for that gene. If the alleles are different, the term heterozygous is used. Originally the term allele was used to describe variation among genes, but it can now also refer to variation among non-coding DNA sequences.
Allelic exclusion
This describes the process by which only one immunoglobulin light chain and one heavy chain gene get transcribed in any one cell while the other genes get repressed.
Allergen
A substance, usually a protein, that can stimulate an abnormal immune response in the body, or what is known as an allergic reaction. Allergens come from a variety of sources, including dust mite excretion, pollen and pet dander.
Allergy
An abnormal reaction by the body’s immune system after exposure to a particular substance, often a protein, contained a particular food, pollen, fur, or dust.
Amino acid
The building blocks that cells in the body use to build proteins. Each protein contains hundreds, even thousands of amino acids joined together in a specific sequence in chain-like formation. The order of the amino acids determines a protein’s shape and function.
Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2)
Receptor found on the surface of many cell types, used by SARS-CoV-2 virus to enter lung epithelial cells. (Source: )
Antibiotic susceptibility test (AST)
A test that determines which antimicrobial drug can successfully inhibit the growth of specific bacteria.
Antibodies
Y-shaped proteins produced by specialised white blood cells (called B lymphocytes or B cells) to recognise and neutralise foreign objects like bacteria, viruses and pollen.
Antigen
Molecule found on the surface of a cell which is capable of triggering an immune response.
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR)
Umbrella term used to describe the diverse range of mechanisms that microbes, like bacteria, fungi, viruses and other parasites, use to survive the destructive effects of drugs like antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals and antimalarials. (Source: )
Array card
A microfluidic card that that contains selected primers and probe sets that facilitates the running of hundreds of real-time PCR reactions simultaneously.
Attenuated bacteria or virus
Where the disease causing ability of a bacteria or virus has been sufficently weakened so that can still prompt an imune response but not the full-blown disease. Attentuated pathogens are commonly used for vaccines.
Autoradiogaphy
A technique using x-ray film to detect and visualise the distribution of radioactive substances in a molecule.
Autoradiograph (autoradiogram)
An image showing the location of radioactive substances in an object.
Avirulent bacteria
Benign bacteria that do not cause disease.
B lymphocytes
Also known as B cells, B lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that is responsible for the production of antibodies which stick to receptors on the surface of germs and other foreign substances and alert the immune system to the presence of intruders. B cells develop from stem cells in the bone marrow.
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
This is a gram positive species of bacteria that dwells in soil. Such bacteria are useful in agriculture because they produce toxins that are deadly to some pests. Different types of Bt target different insect groups. The targets include beetles, mosquitoes, black flies, caterpillars, and moths. Some crops have been genetically engineered to produce Bt toxins.
Bacteriophage (phage)
A bacteriophage, or phage, is a virus that infects and replicates within a bacterium. There are various types of bacteriophages, including R17, lambda, f1, phi X 174 and M13.
Base pairs (bases)
Pair of complementary nucleotides in DNA.
Bayesian Evolutionary Analysis Sampling Trees (BEAST)
Software used to carry out Bayesian analysis of molecular sequences related by an evolutionary tree.
Bioinformatics
Interdisciplinary field that harnesses computer tools to capture and analyse large, complex biological data sets. (Source: )
Biotechnology
Biotechnology refers to the use of cellular and living organisms or their components, including genes, to develop products that improve human health, food and the environment.
Burkitt’s lymphoma
A type of blood cancer that is most common in equatorial Africa and New Guinea.
cDNA
Short for complementary or copy DNA, cDNA is a double-stranded DNA that has been synthesised from an RNA template by reverse transcription. (Source: )
cDNA library
A library that contains cloned complementary DNA fragments inserted into a collection of host cells, each of which has been inserted into a DNA vector (e.g. a circular DNA plasmid) and replicated in a bacterium like E. coli. The bacteria provide a pool of cDNA’s for use in different experiments. Each bacteria population contains a single inserted cDNA which can be extracted and amplified using PCR.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
The national public health agency of the United States. (Source: )
Centre for Genome Pathogen Surveillance (CGPS)
Now based in Oxford, the Centre was established to inform pathogen control strategies on a local, national and international scale.
Cholera
Acute diarrhoeal illness caused by ingestion of food or water contaminated with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. Poor sanitation and lack of clean drinking water contribute to the spread of cholera. If left untreated cholera can be fatal within hours. The disease can be prevented by vaccination.
Chromatography
A chemical technique used for separating the components of a mixture. During the test a mixture dissolved in a liquid or gas is passed through a column, paper or glass support, where the elements of the mixture are either absorbed or hindered to varying degrees and thereby become separated. The technique is used both for the purification and collection of components as a means to quantify and measure component parts in a mixture.
Chromosome
Thread-like structure made up of a tightly coiled single strand of DNA located inside the nucleus of a cell. Usually found in pairs, chromosomes are involved in the transmission of hereditary information. They work in tandem with other nucleic acids to build proteins and are also involved in cell division.
CL3 laboratory
Laboratory classified to have containment level 3. This is required for laboratories that work with high risk biological agents, including human pathogens that have the potential to be transmitted via inhalation. (Source: )
Clone
A genetic replica of a cell or organism that has been created without sexual reproduction. (Source: )
Cloning technique
A method to produce genetically identical copies of a biological entity.
Cloud Infrastructure for Microbial Bioinformatics (CLIMB)
UKs largest cloud-based system for the analysis of microbial genomes. (Source: )
Cluster Investigation & Virus Epidemiology Tool (Civet)
Software suite that works on CLIMB to generate a report for a set of genome sequences of interest, such as for an outbreak investigation. (Source: )
Codon
A set of consecutive, non-overlapping triplets of nucleotides.
COG-Train
International educational initiative providing open-access learning in SARS-CoV-2 genomics. (Source: )
Colorimetry
A technique that measures the concentration of a chemical element with the aid of a colour reagent.
Commensal bacteria
Bacteria that obtain food or other benefits from its host without causing harm.
Complement
A soluble protein found in blood serum that is responsible for killing bacteria. The protein was originally called ‘alexin’ when it was discovered in the late 19th century, but the term was subsequently changed to reflect the fact its action ‘complements’ that of an antibody in the destruction of bacteria.
Complementary DNA (cDNA)
A DNA copy of a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule produced by reverse transcription. The term is used to reflect the fact that its sequence is a complement of the original mRNA sequence. Scientists often use cDNA deployed in gene cloning or as gene probes or in the creation of a cDNA library. Some viruses also use cDNA to convert their viral RNA into mRNA which allows viral proteins to take over the host cell.
Conjugation
Process where DNA is transferred directly from one bacterium to another via a plamid.
Constitutively active gene
A gene that is always transcribed, regardless of any regulatory influences.
Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Bacteria that cause diphtheria.
COVID Immunology Consortium (UK-CIC)
Consortium of leading immunologists convened to understand the immunology of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 to improve diagnostics, treatments and vaccines for the disease. (Source: )
COVID-19 Genomics Consortium (COG-UK)
COG-UK is a group of public health agencies and academic institutions set up in the UK in April 2020 to collect, sequence and analyse genomes of SARS-CoV-2 as part of COVID-19 pandemic response. (Source: )
Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
One of eight viruses in the herpes family. This virus commonly infects humans but is largely harmless. Symptoms include a sore throat, swollen glands and a high temperature.
Cytoplasm
A fluid-filled space between the cell nucleus and the outer membrane.
Degradation method
A technique developed by Fred Sanger where a large molecule is broken down, usually with enzymes, into smaller fragments and then pieced together to work out the sequence of the molecule’s building blocks.
Deoxyribonuclease (DNAase)
An enzyme that cuts up DNA.
Department of Health and Social Care (DHSC)
Department responsible for the UK government’s policy on health and social care matters in England. (Source: )
Dideoxynucleotide (dideoxy)
A compound that inhibits the action of DNA polymerase and blocks its attachment of nucleotides to a growing DNA chain.
Dideoxynucleotide triphosphate (ddTTP)
An analogue of a normal DNA polymerase substrate.
Diphtheria
A serious and life-threatening disease caused by the bacterium Corynebacterium diphtheriae. Mainly spread from one person to another by direct contact or through the air, the bacteria produce a powerful toxin (poison) which kills cells in the mouth and the nose. If diphtheria is left untreated, patients find it increasingly difficult to breathe and are often strangled to death. Some people can carry and transmit the disease without knowing they have it. Diphtheria can now be prevented by a vaccine, first introduced in the 1940s.
Disulfide bridges
Chemical bonds that link two peptide chains together.
DNA
This stands for DeoxyriboNucleic acid, which is a complex chemical found in the nucleus and mitochondria of a cell. It provides the genetic instructions needed for an organism to develop, survive and reproduce.
DNA microarray
Also known as a DNA chip, a DNA micoraary comprises a collection of microscopic DNA spots printed on to a solid surface that is used to measure the expression levels of large numbers of genes simultaneously.
DNA polymerase
DNA polymerase is a type of enzyme that can be found in all living organisms. There are many types of DNA polymerase. Some help replicate DNA when a cell divides and others help in the day-to-day repair and maintenance of DNA.
DNA probe
A fragment of single-strand DNA that contains a specific nucleotide sequence that is used to detect a complementary sequence in a sample genome. The probe is labeled with a radioactive or chemical tag which provides a signal when it binds to the complementary DNA.
DNA sequencing
A biochemical method used to determine the exact order of the four building blocks, nucleotide bases, that make up a piece of DNA.
Double-helix
Term used to describe the spiral configuration of DNA.
Double-stranded
A molecule that consists of two bound strands, each of which complements the other. DNA is usually double-stranded.
Dysentery
A condition caused by either a bacteria or amoeba infection of the intestines. Symptoms include diarrhoea containing blood or mucus, fever and, abdominal pain.
Ebola virus
Also known as Zaire ebolavirus, the ebola virus can cause severe and often fatal haemorrhagic fever in humans and other mammals. (Source: )
Electrophoresis
An analytical method that uses an electric current to separate and sort out molecules based on their size. The method takes advantage of the charged particles in the molecules.
Enteric disease
Group of diseases that affect the stomach or intestine caused by microorganisms like bacteria, viruses and parasites frequently consumed through contaminated food or water. Symptoms are commonly nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal cramps, fever, chills, and a loss of appetite. (Source: )
Enterobacteriaceae
Large family of Gram-negative bacteria which includes Escherichia coli, Klebsiella, Salmonella, Shigella and Yersinia pestis.
Enterococci
Type of bacteria that live in the gut and bowel. Most enterococci are harmless but they can cause urinary tract infections, Infective endocarditis, diverticulitis, meningitis, and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis.
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)
A method that uses antibodies to detect specific proteins.
Epidemic
Rapid spread of a disease above what is normally expected in an area or population. (Source: )
Epidemiology
Branch of medical science that studies the determinants, occurrence and distribution of health and disease in a defined population. (Source: )
Epstein Barr Virus (EBV)
One of eight viruses in the herpes family, this virus is known to cause glandular fever and some forms of cancer and auto-immune diseases in humans.
Escherichia coli (E. coli)
A type of bacteria that commonly live in the intestines of people and animals. There are many types of Escherichia coli. Most pose no harm to human health, but one group produces a potent toxin which can cause food poisoning.
Europe Nucleotide Archive (ENA)
Repository for uploading and sharing annotated DNA and RNA sequences. (Source: )
Expressed sequence tag (EST)
A particular stretch of DNA within a coding region of a gene that is used to identify full-length genes. Such tags are used as landmarks in gene mapping.
Faecal microbiota transplantation (FMT)
Therapy involving the transplant of stool from a healthy donor into a patient to restore microbial diversity in their gut whose bacterial infection has failed to respond to antibiotics.
Fluorodinitrobenzene (DNFB or FDNB)
Also called Sanger’s reagent, dinitrofluorobenzene, DNFB or FDNB, is a chemical that reacts with the N-terminal amino acid of polypeptides. It is used to sequence proteins.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
US Federal agency responsible for ensuring the safety, efficacy and security of human and veterinary drugs, biological products, and medical devices. (Source: )
Fractionation
A separation process that divides a certain quantity of a mixture into a number of smaller quantities.
Free amino acids
Singlular molecules not bound by peptide bonds to other amino acids.
Gene
A distinct stretch of DNA that codes for proteins that perform the cellular functions in an organism. It is the basic physical and functional unit of hereditary. Genes vary in size. Each person has two copies of each gene, one inherited from each parent.
Gene expression
The process by which genetic instructions in DNA are converted into a functional product, such as a protein.
Gene flow
Also known as gene migration or allele flow, describes the transfer of genes from one individual or population to another genetically compatible individual or population. The process enables genetic diversity among populations.
Gene mapping
Also called linkage mapping, gene mapping describes the method used to identify the position of a gene and the distances between genes. Gene mapping is used to find genes responsible for relatively rare, single-gene inherited disorders such as cystic fibrosis and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Scientists are also using the method to work out what genes are involved in the development of more common disorders like asthma, heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and psychiatric conditions.
Gene transcription
The process by which cells read out the genetic instructions in their genes to RNAs, such as messenger RNA, which is the first phase in the synthesis of proteins.
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
European Union regulation designed to protect personal data and privacy. (Source: )
Genetic engineering
Also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, genetic engineering involves the introduction, elimination or rearrangement of specific genes to change the genetic makeup of an organism.
Genetic mutation
A change that happens in the DNA sequence. Such a change can occur either when mistakes are made in the process of copying DNA or result from environmental factors, such ultraviolet radiation from the sun or cigarette smoke. Some mutations are only carried in an individual organism. A change can be carried over into the organism’s offspring where the mutation occurs in a germline cell.
Genetically heterogeneous
Where more than one genetic factor can cause similar characteristics. Within the clinic genetic heterogeneity means the presence of a variety of genetic defects which cause the same disease. These can result from mutations at different places on the same gene. Many cancers and genetic disorders, like type-I diabetes, are genetically heterogeneous.
Genetically modified organism (GMO)
Any organism that has had its genes altered through genetic engineering.
Genetics
A branch of science that studies how physical and behavioural characteristics, including medical conditions, are passed down from parents to offspring through genes.
Genome
Complete set of genetic material within the single cell of an organism. (Source: )
Genomic library
A large collection of DNA fragments that have been cloned from a given organism, tissue, organ, or cell type. Such libraries can contain complete genomic sequences or complementary DNA sequences. They provide the starting point for sequencing whole genomes like the human genome.
Genomics
A branch of genetics established in the 1980s directed towards studying the structure, function, evolution and mapping genomes in organisms. (Source: )
Genotype
The set of genes in DNA which is responsible for a particular trait. (Source: )
Germline cell
A reproductive cell (egg or sperm cell) that contains half the set amount of chromosomes.
GitHub
GitHub is an internet platform that hosts open source software development projects. (Source: )
Global Initiative on Sharing Avian Influenza Data (GISAID)
Global repository for sharing the genomes of respiratory viruses, including influenza and SARS-CoV-2. (Source: )
Glycoprotein
A molecule that consists of a carbohydrate and a protein..
Gonococci
A bacterium that causes gonorrhea. Aso called Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
Gonorrhoea
Sexually transmitted infection caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae, bacteria that live in warm, moist parts of the body such as the throat, rectum, penis and vagina. If not treated early with antibiotics it can cause painful symptoms and serious health problems, including infertility.
Gram staining
Common technique used to differentiate two large groups of bacteria based on the chemical and physical properties of their cell walls. The method involves staining the cells with crystal violet dye and then adding iodine and potassium iodine. Gram-negative bacteria show up as purple while Gram-negative bacteria show up as pink..
Gramicidin
Gramicidin was one of the first antibiotics to be clinically tested and manufactured commercially. It was first isolated from the soil bacterium Bacillus brevis by the French-born American microbiologist René Dubos in 1939 with the help of Rollin Hotchkiss. The antibiotic inhibits the growth of Gram-positive bacteria.
Gramicidin S
An antibiotic that was discovered in 1942 by the Russian microbiologist Georgyi Frantsevitch Gause and his wife Maria Brazhnikova. The antibiotic is effective against some gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria and some fungi.
Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)
Specialised electronic processor designed to accelerate graphics rendering. (Source: )
GridION
Benchtop nanopore sequencing device designed to run multiple experiments simultaneously with 5 independent flow cells. Produced by Oxford Nanopore Technologies. (Source: )
Haemagglutinin (H)
A type of protein molecule found on surface of a virus particle that enables a virus to enter host cells.
Haemoglobin
A protein molecule present in red blood cells that delivers oxygen to cells in the body.
HighSeq 2500
High-though-put sequencing system developed by Illumina. (Source: )
Homochromatography
Type of chromatography that rests on the displacement of oligonucleotides (small groups of nucleotides) fixed on some ion-exchange paper by some unlabelled oligonucleotides.
Hospital-onset COVID-19 infection study (HOCI)
Study set up to evaluate the efficacy of rapid genome sequencing of SARS-CoV-2 for limiting the spread of COVID-19 in UK hospitals. (Source: )
Human Genome Project (HGP)
International research effort officially launched in 1990 and completed in 2003 to determine all three billion bases of DNA within the entire human genome and its genes.
Hybrid
An animal or plant that has been produced through cross-breeding two different species or plant varieties.
Hybrid cell
Where a cell is formed by combining two cells of different origin in which the two nuclei merge into one.
Hydrolysis
The process by which chemical bonds in a molecule are broken down through the addition of water or another substance such as an acid.
In vitro
Term comes from the Latin meaning ‘in a glass’ or ‘in the glass’. It is used to describe studies carried out in an artificial, controlled environment outside the body, such as in a petri dish or test tube.
In vivo
Term comes from the Latin meaning ‘within the living’. It is used to describe tests, experiments or procedures researchers perform in a whole living organism. (Source: )
Infection Prevention and Control (IPC)
A sub-discipline of epidemiology concerned with preventing the spread of healthcare-associated infections. (Source: )
Insulin
A hormone secreted by the pancreas that helps the body regulate sugar levels in the blood.
Intellectual property rights
Rights given to a person or company for an invention, including new technologies or new organisms. Such rights allow the owner to control their use and to earn rewards from their use.
Intensive Care National Audit & Research Centre (ICNARC)
Independent, not-for-profit, scientific organisation that oversees a broad programme of clinical audit and clinical/health services research. It hosts databases for multiple studies on the epidemiology of critical illness to help inform practice and policy. (Source: )
International Committee of Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)
Set up in 1966, ICTV authorises and organises the classification and naming of viruses. (Source: )
International Severe Acute Respiratory and emerging Infection Consortium (ISARIC)
Global federation of clinical research networks set up to coordinate response to outbreak-prone infectious diseases. (Source: )
Ion
An electrically charged atom formed by the loss or gain of one or more electrons.
Ionophoresis (Ion exchange chromatography)
A separation process that relies on charge-charge interactions between proteins in a sample and charges immobilized on resin.
Klebsiella
A harmless type of Gram-negative bacteria that lives in the gut but can cause different types of infections, including pneumonia, bloodstream infections, wound or surgical site infections, and meningitis.
Lactis aerogenes (Aerobacter aerogenes)
Harmless organism sometimes involved in the souring of milk.
LamPORE
Diagnostic platform for the detection of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. (Source: )
Ligation
Term used to describe the joining of 2 DNA strands or other molecules together. (Source: )
Lighthouse labs
UK network of diagnostic labs set up to carry out community testing for COVID-19. (Source: )
Lineage
Used to describe a group of closely related viruses with a common ancestor. (Source: )
Lipopolysaccharide
Also known as endotoxin, a lipopolysaccharide is a large molecule found on the outer membrane of the bacterial cell wall which can activate the immune system and cause harm.
Lockdown
Policy used in emergency situations to restrict the movement of people to prevent the spread of disease. (Source: )
Long-Covid
Used to describe the effects of COVID-19 that last for several weeks or months beyond the initial illness. (Source: )
Loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP)
A single-tube technique that enables the amplification of DNA which unlike conventional PCR does not require a thermocycler.
lower middle income countries (LMICs)
Term used for countries with low-income or middle-income economies listed by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (Source: )
Lymphoma
Type of blood cancer.
Lysine
Essential nutrient in the human diet.
Malaria Genomic Epidemiology Network (MalariaGEN)
A network of researchers building large-scale human, malaria parasite and mosquito data resources to better understand the evolution and epidemiology of malaria to help control the disease. (Source: )
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
A molecule in cells that conveys genetic information from DNA to the ribosome, the site of protein synthesis.
Metabolism
The chemical reactions that occur in a living cell or organism to build and break down substances.
Metadata
In genomics, metadata provides information on the time and origin of the sample that the genetic material was taken from, as well as certain characteristics, such as a person’s age, which is essential to correctly interpret the genomic data and understand its context.. (Source: )
Metagenomics
A broad discipline that studies genetic material collected from environmental or clinical samples. (Source: )
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
A staphylococci species that is resistant to many widely used antibiotics.
Methionine
Type of amino acid.
Microbiology
A discipline that investigates the biology of microscopic organisms like viruses, bacteria, algae, fungi, slime moulds and protozoa. (Source: )
MicroReact
An open source web tool for visualising and sharing genomic epidemiology, phylogenetic trees and metadata. (Source: )
Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS)
A rare but severe type of respiratory illness caused by a novel coronavirus first identified in Saudi Arabia in 2012. (Source: )
MinION
A portable nanopore sequencing device produced by Oxford Nanopore Technologies. (Source: )
MiSeq
Benchtop genome sequencer produced by Illumina. (Source: )
Mitochondria
Specialised subunits present in the cytoplasm of cells that provide energy to the cell.
Mitochondrial DNA
Most DNA is contained within a cell’s nucleus, but it can also be found in mitochondria. Unlike nuclear DNA, which is inherited from both parents, mitochondrial DNA is only passed on by the mother.
Mitosis
A cell replication process in which a single cell divides to become two identical cells.
Molecular biology
A branch of science that studies the composition, structure, function and interactions of cellular molecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids.
Monoclonal antibody
Laboratory produced antibody designed to recognise and bind to specific receptors found on the surface of cells. Derived from natural antibodies, monoclonal antibodies are produced by creating a hybrid cell line, known as a hybridoma, by fusing a short-lived antibody-producing B cell, a type of white blood cell, collected from the spleen of an immunised animal with an immortal cancer cell line. Maintained in a medium, the hybridoma will secrete endless quantities of antibodies. Each of these antibodies are identical and clones of a unique parent cell – hence the term ‘monoclonal’.
Multilocus enzyme electrophoresis (MLEE)
Technique that enables the differentiation of organisms based on an how far their intracellular enzymes migrate during electrophoresis.
Multilocus sequence typing (MLST)
Method that makes it possible to classify bacterial isolates based on the sequencing of six or seven well-conserved, housekeeping genes within the bacterial genome.
Mutation
A term used to signify a single change in the genetic code of a virus or other pathogens. Mutations frequently happen in viruses and other pathogens as they evolve but only sometimes change their characteristics. (Source: )
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Type of microorganism that causes tuberculosis.
Myoglobin
A protein found in heart tissue and other muscles.
Nanopore sequencing
Technique that reads the sequence of a single strand of DNA as it passes through extremely tiny pores embedded in a membrane. (Source: )
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma
Cancer of the throat and nose
National Health Service (NHS)
Publicly funded healthcare system in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. (Source: )
Neisseria meningitidis (N. meningitidis)
Also known as meningococcus, N. meningitidis, is a Gram-negative bacterium that is responsible for meningitis and severe sepsis. Meningitis symptoms typically includes fatigue, fever, and headache that can rapidly progress to neck stiffness, coma and death. The bacteria are most commonly spread by coughing, sneezing, and respiratory droplets.
Neuraminidase
Type of enzyme that facilitates the release of new virus particles from infected host cells.
NextEra
DNA library preparation kit provided by Illumina. (Source: )
NextStrain
International collaborative project which provides open-source tools for visualising the genetics behind the spread of viral outbreaks. (Source: )
NimaGen
Dutch based company that manufactures and supplies pre-designed and customised tests, reagents and workflow solutions for DNA sequencing. (Source: )
Nosocomial infections
Hospital-acquired infections.
NovaSeq
Whole genome sequencing platform produced by Illumina. (Source: )
Nucleic acid
Long molecule made up of smaller molecules called nucleotides which are chemically linked together in a chain. Nucleotides are instrumental in transferring genetic information from one generation to another. There are two types of nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Nucleic acid hybridisation
The process in which two complementary strands of nucleic acids – RNA, DNA or oligonucleotides – are joined.
Nucleotides
Nucleotides are molecules present in all cells of the body. They serve many purposes, including acting as cellular messengers between the outside and the inside of a cell’s nucleus, storing energy and as physiological mediators. Nucleotides are also necessary to the construction of the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. DNA is made up of four base nucleotides: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T). RNA is made up of A, G, and C, plus uracil.
Octanucleotide
DNA fragment made up of eight nucleotides.
Office for National Statistics (ONS)
UK’s largest independent producer of official statistics. (Source: )
Oligonucleotide
Commonly made in the laboratory, an oligonucleotide is a short sequence of DNA (usually 2-50 bases). Oligonucleotides are important in artificial gene synthesis, polymerase chain reactions, DNA sequencing, library construction and can be used as molecular probes.
Open reading frame (ORF)
Describes a continuous stretch of DNA which starts with the start cordon (groups of three nucleotides) and ends with any of the termination stop codons. The start codon is usually AUG and the stop codon is usually UAA, UAG or UGA. The term is deployed in work to find genes.
Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT)
UK based company that develops and sells nanopore sequencing products. (Source: )
Pandemic
An outbreak of an infectious disease that spreads across a large region, for example multiple continents or worldwide. (Source: )
Pango system
A dynamic nomenclature system for classifying and naming genetically-distinct lineages of SARS-CoV-2, including variants of concern. (Source: )
Patent
A patent is a form of intellectual property rights granted by a government to an inventor or their assignee for a limited amount of time in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention. A patent provides the right to exclude all others from making, using, or selling an invention or products made by an invented process. Like any other property right, it may be sold, licensed, assigned or transferred, given away or simply abandoned.
Pathogen
An organism that is capable of causing disease. Other terms used to describe such organisms are ‘germ’ or ‘infectious agent’.
Pathogen genomics
Approach using genomic sequencing to understand the evolution and spread of pathogens to help control the spread of an infectious disease . (Source: )
Pathogen Genomics Unit, Public Health Wales (PenGU)
Body established in 2018 to provide an accredited sequencing environment for a range of clinical pathogen genomics services for the whole of Wales. (Source: )
Pathogenic
Term used to describe a bacterium, virus or other microorganism that has the ability to cause disease.
Pathogenwatch
Computer platform that makes it possible to compare pathogen genome sequences from around the world. (Source: )
Penicillin
Group of antibiotics produced from common Penicillium moulds.
Penicillium
Common mould species that grows in diverse range of habitats
Peptide
A compound made up of two or more amino acids linked together in a chain.
Peptide bond
A chemical bond between two amino acid molecules.
Phage therapy
Treatment to combat bacterial infection using phages, viruses that destroy bacteria.
Phage typing
Means of classifying bacteria based on whether they get destroyed by specific phages.
Pharmacogenomics
The discipline that investigates the relationship between genetics and a person’s response to a drug.
Phenotype
The physical characteristics of an organism that result from the interactions between genes, environment, disease, molecular mechanisms, and chance.
Phylogenetic Assignment of Named Global Outbreak Lineages (PANGOLIN)
Computational tool able to assign the most likely lineage to a given SARS-CoV-2 genome sequence based on the Pango dynamic lineage nomenclature scheme. (Source: )
Phylogenetic tree
Also known as phylogeny, a phylogenetic tree is a branching diagram used to show the evolutionary relationships between a particular set of organisms. (Source: )
Phylogenetics
Study of the evolutionary relationships among a particular group of organisms sharing a common ancestor. (Source: )
Pillar 1 testing
COVID-19 testing of hospitalised patients. (Source: )
Pillar 2 testing
COVID-19 testing undertaken in the community through drive-through test centres, mobile testing units and satellite test centres. (Source: )
Pipeline
Term used to describe end to end process all the way from receipt of a sample through to getting validated data at the end. (Source: )
Plasmids
Small self-replicating piece of DNA found in the cytoplasm of a bacterium or protozoan
Plus minus technique
A technique developed by Sanger for sequencing DNA, which involves the use of DNA polymerase to add and exclude one trinucleotide to DNA chains and the end products, labelled with a radioactive tag, then being separated with electrophoresis on acrylamide
Pneumococci
Bacteria that are the most common cause of bloodstream infections, pneumonia, meningitis, and middle ear infections in young children.
Pneumonia
Respiratory infection that affects the air sacs in one or both lungs which is caused by a variety of microorganisms including bacteria, viruses and fungi. Pneumonia symptoms include coughing with phlegm or pus, fever, chills, and difficulty breathing. The condition can range from mild to life-threatening. Pneumonia is most serious for young children and people over the age of 65 as well as for those with weakened immune systems.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
A technique that is used to copy a specific DNA sequence. The technique provides the means to make one billion exact copies of an original target DNA within a couple of hours.
Polypeptide chain
Chain of amino acids.
Primer
Template strand of DNA used to generate a new double-strand of DNA.
Principal Investigator (PI)
Person responsible for the conduct of a research study at a site. (Source: )
Promoter
A region of DNA that regulates the level of function of other genes. (Source: US Department of Agriculture)
Protein
Proteins are large complex molecules that do most of the work in the cells in a living organism. They play a crucial role in almost all biological processes, being involved in building, maintaining and replacing tissues in the body, as well helping to pro
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa)
Also known as Pseudomonas spp, P aeruginosa is aa common rod-shaped Gram negative bacterium that can cause infections in the blood, lungs (pneumonia), or other parts of the body after surgery.
Public Health Agency (PHA)
Body responsible for public health protection. (Source: )
Public Health England (PHE)
Executive agency of the Department of Health and Social Care in England established in 2013. In 2021 it was replaced by the UK Health Security Agency. (Source: )
Public Health Scotland (PSA)
Scotland’s national public health body. (Source: )
Public Health Wales (PHW)
Wales’ national public health body. (Source: )
QIAcube HT
Instrument used to perform nucleic acid purification. (Source: )
R plasmid (R factor)
Small self-replicating extrachromosomal DNA.
REal-time Assessment of Community Transmission trial (REACT)
Research study led by Imperial College in partnership with Ipsos MORI and Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust to examine the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 virus in the general population. It involves over 150,000 participants each month using home testing to improve our understanding of how the COVID-19 pandemic is progressing across England. (Source: )
Recombinant DNA (rDNA)
Also known as gene cloning or splicing, recombinant DNA is a technique that produces identical copies (clones) of a gene. The procedure involves joining together DNA segments in a cell-free system (e.g. in a test tube outside living cells or organisms). The recombinant DNA molecule is then introduced into a cell where it will replicate itself, either as an independent entity (autonomously) or as an integral part of a cellular chromosome.
Regulatory gene
A gene the controls the expression of one of more structural genes. It does this either directly by DNA binding or indirectly by activating a cellular protein.
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV )
Common respiratory virus that can cause mild, cold-like symptoms, but can be serious for infants and older adults. (Source: )
Restriction enzymes
These are DNA-cutting enzymes found in and harvested from bacteria. Each enzyme recognises and cuts DNA at a particular point on its nucleotide chain.
Reverse complement PCR (RC-PCR)
Modification of polymerase chain reaction used to generate amplicon libraries for DNA sequencing. (Source: )
Reverse transcriptase
An multifunctional enzyme able to catalyse the creation of a double-stranded DNA from an RNA template (Source: )
Reverse transcription
The process of copying of an RNA molecule back into its DNA complement. This is done with the help of an enzyme called reverse transcriptase. In nature retroviruses use reverse transcription to insert themselves into an organism’s genome. In the laboratory reverse transcription is used to translate unstable mRNA molecules into stable cDNA.
Ribonuclease T1
Enzyme that cuts nucleic acids at a very specific point on a nucleotide chain.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
A type of molecule that plays a role in the coding, decoding, regulation and expression of genes. There are two types of RNA: 1) messenger RNA (mRNA), responsible for carrying the genetic code to the ribosome to build a protein; and 2) transfer RNA (tRNA)
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
A chemical substance made up of nucleotides compound of sugars, phosphates, and derivatives of the four bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U). RNAs function in cells as messengers of information from DNA that are translated into protein or as molecules that have certain structural or catalytic functions in the synthesis of proteins. RNA is also the carrier of genetic information for certain viruses. RNAs may be single or double stranded. (Source: US Department of Agriculture)
Ribonucleotide triphosphates
RNA precursors.
Ribosome
A minute particle found in the cytoplasm of living cells which is responsible for assembling the proteins of a cell.
Ribosubstitution method
Means to substitute a specific deoxynucleotide with a specific ribonucleotide in the DNA chain. The method facilitates a DNA chain to be cleaved at very specific points with an enzyme.
RNASeq
Technique that provides a means to examine the quantity and sequences of RNA in a sample using next-generation sequencing. (Source: )
Salmonella
Type of rod-shaped Gram-negative bacteria that affects the intestinal tract. First discovered by Daniel E. Salmon in 1885, Salmonella commonly causes salmonellosis, a disease which has the symptoms of diarrhoea, fever, and stomach cramps. Occasionally Salmonella can cause infection in urine, blood, bones, joints, or the nervous system. Salmonella infections can be caused by consumption of contaminated food or water and touching infected animals.
Salvarsan
Also known as arsphenamine or compound 606, Salvarsan is credited with being the first the first man-made chemotherapy agent. It provided the first effective treatment for syphilis,
SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern
Term used to describe a SARS-CoV-2 variant with genetic changes observed to be more infectious and more likely to cause breakthrough infections or reinfections in people already vaccinated and previously infected. Five variants of concern (Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron) had been identified by February 2023. (Source: )
Scientific Advisory Group for Emergencies (SAGE)
Independent advisory group convened to support the UK government in the event of a national emergency. The group does not make decisions or set policy, it only provides advice. (Source: )
Selectable marker
A gene, often encoding resistance to an antibiotic or an herbicide, introduced into a group of cells to allow identification of those cells that contain the gene of interest from the cells that do not. Selectable markers are used in genetic engineering to facilitate identification of cells that have incorporated another desirable trait that is not easy to identify in individual cells. (Source: US Department of Agriculture)
Septicaemia
A condition that arises when a bacteria or their toxins enters the bloodstream and causes blood poisoning setting off sepsis which can rapidly become life-threatening.
Serine proteases
Enzymes that cleave peptide bonds in proteins.
Serotyping
A method used to classify microorganisms based on whether structures (antigens) found on their cell surface clump together when with antibodies in serum taken from a previously immunised human or animal.
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2 virus)
A strain of coronavirus first identified in China in late 2019 that is highly contagious and responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic which by October 2022 had caused more than 6 million deaths. (Source: )
Shigella
A group of Gram-negative bacteria that causes an infection called shigellosis, also known as dysentery. Common symptoms include severe bloody diarrhoea, stomach cramps and fever. The illness is most common in young children. Shigella can be caught by touching infected surfaces, eating contaminated food or swallowing contaminated water. It can also be spread by sexual contact.
Sickle-cell anaemia
An inherited disorder that distorts the shape of red blood cells, making them fragile and prone to rupture, causing severe anaemia.
Site directed mutagenesis (SDM)
Technique that makes it possible to very precisely change part of an organism’s DNA.
Somatic cell
Any cell in the body that is not a reproductive cell. The somatic cell carries two sets of chromosomes, one inherited from each parent.
Staphylococci
A group of Gram-positive, round-shaped bacteria responsible for a broad spectrum of diseases with varying degrees of severity. They are responsible for for a large proportion of hospital acquired infections.
Staphylococcus aureus
Most common form of staphylococcal bacteria, They are responsible for many different health problems in humans, including carbuncles, food-poisoning, and infections around medical devices and wounds.
Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus)
Most common staphylococcal bacterial. They are responsible for any different health problems in humans, including carbuncles, food-poisoning, and infections around medical devices and wounds.
Streptococci
A type of Gram-positive spherical bacteria that cause many disorders, including pharyngitis, pneumonia, wound and skin infections, sepsis, and endocarditis.
Sulphonamides
Also called sulpha drugs, sulphonamides are a group of synthetic antibacterial drugs that stop bacteria from reproducing and interfere with bacteria’s ability to synthesize folic acid.
Taqman assay
Genotyping assay used to amplify and detect specific alleles in genomic DNA. (Source: )
Tetranucelotides
A particular block of nucleotides made up of four base pairs (adenine (A) and thymine (T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G).
Transduction
Process by which bacteria pick up genetic material from bacteriophages and gets passed on to other bacteria
Transformation
Process by which bacteria acquire new genetic material from the environment
Transgene
A gene that has been taken from one organism and inserted into another organism.
Transgenic organism
An organism that has had its genes deliberately altered to give it specific characteristics it would not otherwise possess naturally.
Trypanosoma brucei
Parasite that causes sleeping sickness
Tuberculosis (TB)
A highly infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The bacterium most commonly attacks the lungs but it can also attack other parts of the body, including the abdomen, glands, bone and nervous system. Tiny droplets from coughs and sneezes of infected patients spread the disease. Most common symptoms are a persistent cough which can be bloody, night sweats, fever, neck swelling, fatigue and loss of appetite. the disease can be cured with the right antibiotics.
Two-dimensional paper fraction technique
Method developed by Sanger and colleagues in 1965 to determine the sequence of nucleic acids. It used a combination of radioactive labelling and electrophoresis and laid the groundwork for sequencing RNA.
UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA)
A UK government agency set up in April 2021 to oversee England-wide public health protection. (Source: )
Variant of concern (VOC)
Term used to describe a SARS-CoV-2 variant with genetic changes observed to be more infectious and more likely to cause breakthrough infections or reinfections in people already vaccinated and previously infected. Five variants of concern (Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron) had been identified by February 2023. (Source: )
Variant of interest (VOI)
Term used to describe a SARS-CoV-2 variant with genetic changes that have the potential to be more transmissible, able to evade immunity or cause more severe disease.
Vector (molecular biology)
A vector in molecular biology is a vehicle that is used carry foreign genetic material from one cell into another where it can be replicated and/or expressed. Typically a vector is a DNA sequence that consists of an insert (transgene) and a larger sequence that serves as the ‘backbone’ of the vector. The most common form of vector used in genetic engineering are plasmids. (Source: US Department of Agriculture)
Virological
Online forum for the analysis and interpretation of virus molecular evolution and epidemiology. (Source: )
Viron
Virus particle.
Virulent bacteria
Bacteria that have the ability to cause disease.
Whole genome sequencing (WGS)
Laboratory process to determine the complete DNA sequence of an organism’s genome.
World Health Organization (WHO)
United Nations agency set up in 1948 to oversee international public health.
X-ray crystallography
A technique used to determine the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal based on the use of X-rays.
Zika virus
First isolated in the Zika Forest of Uganda in 1947, the virus is transmitted between humans and animals by mosquitoes. In most cases it causes a very mild infection with no long-term harm. But it can be dangerous in pregnancy as it can lead to birth defects, in particular causing babies to have abnormally small heads (microcephaly).